🧠Understanding Arousal: What It Actually Means for Your Dog

Oliver Ringrose
Apr 17
17 min read

“He’s just over-aroused.”

If you’ve ever heard a trainer say that and found yourself nodding politely while secretly thinking, “Okay, but… what does that actually mean?”, you’re not alone.

“Arousal” is one of those words that gets thrown around constantly in the dog training world, yet rarely gets explained properly—especially to pet guardians who are just trying to understand their dog’s behaviour.

Worse still, it’s often used as a catch-all for any behaviour that’s big, loud, or inconvenient. Barking? Arousal. Lunging? Arousal. Jumping, mouthing, pulling, spinning, zooming, barking again? Arousal.

But here’s the thing:

Arousal isn’t an emotion. And it’s not a behaviour either.

It’s a neurological and physiological state—a level of activation in the nervous system that influences how emotions are experienced, how behaviour is expressed, and how well a dog can respond to the world around them.

It’s also not inherently good or bad. Your dog can be in a high state of arousal because they’re terrified—or because they just saw their favourite squeaky toy.

☕ Buckle In (You Might Need a Pot of Tea)

This post is long. It’s deep. And it was written with a LOT of care (and a very patient AI assistant who doesn’t take tea breaks). We’ve spent hours unravelling this topic—from the biology to the body language, from real-life examples to the science of adolescent brains.

This is arousal, properly explained. Backed by evidence. Grounded in behaviour. Written for both pet parents and professionals.

🔍 What Is Arousal, Really?

In scientific terms, arousal refers to the level of activation in the brain and body’s alertness systems—specifically, the central nervous system (CNS) and autonomic nervous system (ANS).

It’s regulated by brain structures like the:

Reticular activating system
Amygdala
Locus coeruleus

These systems influence how alert, responsive, or “ready for action” an animal is in any moment. Arousal ties directly into:

Heart rate
Breathing
Muscle tone
Pupil dilation
Hormone release
Focus and motivation

It is not, however:

A synonym for excitement
A standalone emotion
A misbehaving dog
A problem to fix

🎚️ The Real-Life Picture

Think of arousal like the volume dial on your dog’s brain.

At low levels, they might be sleepy or disengaged
At moderate levels, they’re alert, focused, able to learn
At high levels, the brain switches into survival gear: fight, flight, freeze, fidget, or flood

Crucially:

A dog can be in a high arousal state without looking hyperactive. Stillness isn’t always calmness.

Some dogs freeze, shut down, or “fawn” in high arousal—especially when driven by fear, pain, or overwhelming sensory input.

So when we say “arousal,” we’re not talking about what the dog is doing—we’re talking about how ready their brain and body are to do something.

📈 Arousal Isn’t Linear

Many people assume arousal moves in a straight line—calm → excited → overwhelmed. But in reality, it behaves more like a spiral, shifting direction and shape based on emotion, context, and learning history.

Dogs can swing between explosive and implosive responses, depending on:

Emotional valence (positive or negative)
Coping style
Sensory processing capacity
Pain, discomfort, or internal tension

🔄 Suzanne Clothier’s Arousal Scale (CARAT Model)

Behaviourist Suzanne Clothier created an arousal scale ranging from -4 to +4. Although this is used to measure arousal as a character trait rather than in real time, It’s incredibly helpful in understanding that intensity doesn’t always equal activity.

Level	Arousal Type	Common Behaviours
+4	High positive	Barking, lunging, jumping
0	Neutral zone	Regulated, socially connected
-4	High negative	Freeze, shut down, non-responsiveness

A dog at +4 might be bouncing off the walls. A dog at -4 might be completely still—but that doesn’t mean they’re calm.

They’re both in high arousal, just in opposite emotional directions.

Stillness doesn’t mean safety. Quiet doesn’t mean regulated.

This is one of the most dangerous misunderstandings we see—dogs in freeze or fawn responses often get labelled “good” or “calm” when they’re actually enduring, not engaging.

🧠 The Neuroscience of Arousal

Arousal isn’t just a vague energy state—it’s a biological event involving multiple brain regions and neurochemical systems. Here’s what we know:

🧠 Key Brain Structures

Amygdala – Flags emotional salience (is this relevant to my survival?) and triggers arousal responses.
Locus coeruleus – Releases norepinephrine, initiating alertness and physical readiness.
Hypothalamus – Oversees hormonal and autonomic responses (e.g. stress, arousal, thermoregulation).
Vagus nerve – Crucial for parasympathetic regulation: rest, recovery, social connection.

💡 The Polyvagal Perspective

According to Polyvagal Theory (Porges, 2007), the autonomic nervous system isn’t binary (on/off)—it has hierarchical states that influence arousal and behaviour.

Social Engagement (Ventral Vagal) – Calm, connected, curious.
Mobilisation (Sympathetic) – Fight, flight, fidget.
Immobilisation (Dorsal Vagal) – Freeze, shut down, collapse.

Dogs can switch between these states fluidly—or get stuck in one if dysregulation becomes chronic.

🧪 Key Neurochemicals

Norepinephrine – Heightens alertness and response speed.
Cortisol – Mobilises energy under stress, but impairs learning when chronically elevated.
Dopamine – Drives SEEKING, motivation, and reward-seeking behaviours.
Oxytocin – Supports co-regulation and social bonding under safety.

These chemicals don’t operate in isolation—they influence how dogs process information, regulate emotion, and express behaviour.

🧭 The Emotional Systems That Drive Arousal

Arousal is not an emotion—but it is closely tied to the emotional systems that activate behaviour.

Drawing from the work of neuroscientist Jaak Panksepp, there are seven core emotional systems in mammals. Each activates arousal differently:

System	Function	Arousal Expression
🧭 SEEKING	Motivation, exploration	Focused, investigative, forward-moving
😱 FEAR	Threat detection, escape	Freeze, hypervigilance, shutdown
😡 RAGE	Frustration, protest	Barking, lunging, defensive aggression
😢 PANIC/GRIEF	Separation distress	Crying, following, anxiety, vocalisation
🤱 CARE	Nurturing, bonding	Soft focus, social approach
😄 PLAY	Joy, social learning	Bouncing, role-reversal, contact-seeking
🐾 LUST	Reproduction	(Less relevant to training unless entire)

For example:

A dog in SEEKING may explore, sniff, or focus intensely.
A dog in FEAR may shut down, flee, or freeze.
A dog in PANIC/GRIEF may cling, cry, or become frantic.

And crucially:

Aggression doesn’t originate in the FEAR system. It usually comes from RAGE, when escape fails or protest is suppressed.

This is why punishing behaviour without understanding the emotional root often backfires—it adds frustration to fear, and the emotional load tips over.

🔬 The Sensory Systems Behind Arousal

Dogs don’t just feel emotions—they perceive the world through layered sensory systems. These have a huge influence on arousal and emotion regulation.

Let’s break them down:

🔹 Exteroception

Input from the outside world: Sight, sound, smell, touch, taste, movement, temperature.

Busy visual environments can spike arousal in herding breeds.
Loud, unpredictable sounds may cause shutdown in noise-sensitive dogs.
Frustration may build if natural sensory SEEKING (e.g. sniffing) is restricted.

🔹 Interoception

Internal sensing: Hunger, thirst, gut sensation, heart rate, breathing, bladder fullness.

This is how dogs feel their feelings.

A dog doesn’t “know” it’s anxious—but it feels tension in its gut, shallow breathing, and raised heart rate. That felt experience drives emotional reactivity—even when nothing obvious has happened externally.

Discomfort, illness, or internal dysregulation (e.g. pain, inflammation, gut issues) can lower emotional resilience, increase reactivity, or lead to shutdowns.

🔹 Proprioception

Body awareness: Knowing where limbs are in space, movement control, and balance.

In high arousal, proprioception often falls apart:

Heelwork becomes messy
Position changes go sloppy
Precision vanishes in favour of brute force

We’ll explore this further in the motor skills and arousal section coming up.

🔹 Vestibular & Nociception

Vestibular – Detects movement, gravity, and head position. Nociception – Detects pain and potential tissue damage.

Both systems heavily influence arousal thresholds—especially when underlying pain or sensory mismatch is present. A dysregulated vestibular system can create motion sensitivity, and chronic pain alters how safe or unsafe the world feels.

🦴 Chewing as Sensory Regulation

While we often think of chewing as a reward or enrichment, it also plays a critical regulatory role. Chewing engages rhythmic jaw motion, proprioceptive feedback, and oral sensory processing—all of which contribute to calming the nervous system.

New research even shows that chewing after a learning task doesn’t just help dogs settle—it enhances memory retention, likely by supporting parasympathetic activation and reducing sympathetic tone (Moesta et al., 2025). That means a well-timed chew can support both emotional recovery and learning efficiency.

Chewing isn’t just something dogs enjoy—it’s something they need to recover from arousal and integrate experience.

🧬 Breed Differences in Arousal Patterns

Not all dogs regulate arousal the same way. Breed traits, genetics, and selective breeding all influence:

Arousal thresholds – How fast a dog "goes up"
Arousal recovery – How quickly (or not) they come back down
Sensory sensitivity – What systems trigger them most easily
Preferred emotional systems – What they rely on (SEEKING, PLAY, etc.)

Understanding breed-specific arousal profiles can help us predict and support behaviour, rather than pathologising it.

🐶 Examples from the Research:

Border Collies – Visual seekers, quick to spike in motion-heavy environments; often shift rapidly between SEEKING and RAGE (Chapagain et al., 2017).
Malinois – High-intensity working dogs; often rely on SEEKING + RAGE systems; fast activators with prolonged recovery.
Beagles – Strong SEEKING drive, especially through scent; easily frustrated if deprived of sniff-based exploration.
Cavaliers – Deeply sensitive to human social cues; may internalise stress and show high interoceptive reactivity (Wan et al., 2012).

Breed isn’t destiny, but it’s context. We set dogs up better when we train with their nervous system, not against it.

Recent research also highlights that personality traits like boldness and fearfulness—often linked to arousal regulation—are heritable and vary between individuals and breeds. This means some dogs are biologically more sensitive to stressors or more persistent in arousal-driven behaviours, and their regulation strategies must be tailored accordingly.

(Mikkola et al., 2025)

Breed isn’t destiny, but it’s context. We set dogs up better when we train with their nervous system, not against it.

🎯 Arousal and Learning: It’s Complicated

You may have heard of the Yerkes–Dodson Law—it shows that performance and learning are best at moderate arousal. Too low = disinterest. Too high = meltdown.

But here’s the kicker:

Dogs do learn in high arousal. They just don’t learn what we’re teaching.

They learn what feels emotionally important in that moment—often:

“If I bark, that person goes away.”
“If I lunge, I move forward.”
“If I panic, someone rescues me.”

These aren’t obedience issues. They’re survival-based associations—strong, sticky, and not easily overridden.

🧠 Conditioned Emotional Responses (CERs)

When arousal is consistently high during learning, the emotional state gets paired with the behaviour.

For example:

If a dog is highly aroused every time they hear their recall cue (e.g. at the peak of play), the arousal itself becomes part of the behaviour.
If a new skill is taught under emotional pressure, the skill may get paired with stress—making it harder to retrieve later.

Sometimes we bring arousal along for the ride, unintentionally. This is where training gets messy—and where emotional safety becomes essential.

💥 Why Fine Motor Skills Fall Apart in High Arousal

Ever tried to thread a needle after three espressos? Yeah—dogs feel that too.

In high arousal:

Proprioception drops
Motor planning gets fuzzy
Impulse control tanks

This is why:

Heelwork falls apart
Recalls become full-body cannonballs
You lose your fingertips to enthusiastic treat-taking

High arousal prioritises big motor movements (run, leap, bark), not precision or self-restraint.

It’s not that the dog forgot the skill. It’s that their nervous system stopped making it accessible.

Post-learning chewing has been shown to improve memory consolidation and lower sympathetic arousal in dogs, likely by engaging parasympathetic tone and facilitating emotional downregulation. This supports the use of long-lasting chews, licki-mats, or natural foraging after training sessions—not just as enrichment, but as recovery.

(Moesta et al., 2025)

🌀 Adolescence: A Perfect Storm for Arousal Dysregulation

Adolescence (typically 6–24 months, depending on breed) is a neurodevelopmental minefield. The dog’s brain is under construction—specifically, the parts that manage impulse control, emotional regulation, and social feedback.

🧠 What’s Happening?

Grey matter (processing power) increases
White matter (communication speed) lags behind
The limbic system (emotional brain) is fully online
The prefrontal cortex (control and inhibition) is not

This leads to:

Fast arousal spikes
Poor frustration tolerance
Impulsive choices
Big feelings, tiny filters

It’s not rudeness. It’s neurobiology in flux.

🧠 Adolescent Misfires: When Training Breaks Down Under Pressure

Here’s an example that brings this to life.

In a recent 1:1 session, I was working with a young Labrador who had come to me after struggling in a group class. When he first arrived, he wasn’t steady, his retrieve was messy, and he’d developed a habit of collecting the dummy and then disappearing into the environment.

We worked on building steadiness, delivery, and emotional regulation. Things were improving. So we set up an exercise to combine all three: placeboard-to-placeboard recall, with a retrieve dummy introduced midway once the pattern felt clean.

On the first rep, he nailed it—focused, responsive, clean delivery. On the second? Before the handler could even cue the behaviour, he dropped into a down.

Moments later, he broke the pattern entirely—recall line widened, delivery fell apart, and he took the dummy off on a little self-directed wander before bringing it back.

This wasn’t confusion. It wasn’t “being naughty.” It was a behavioural misfire—a moment where arousal, pattern disruption, and adolescent brain development collided.

⚙️ What Happened?

Brain lag: The grey matter spike and white matter lag meant his impulse control couldn’t keep up with his enthusiasm (Bryce & Szabó, 2023; Chamchoi et al., 2020).
Arousal spike: The emotional charge of the retrieve pushed him over threshold.
Displacement: That down? Possibly a stress-coping behaviour, or a fall-back action from earlier learning.
Overprediction: He anticipated the sequence instead of responding to it—and in doing so, the behaviour collapsed.

This is why understanding arousal matters. It helps us see what’s really happening under the surface—and why the answer isn’t always “train harder.”

🔄 Arousal, Recovery, and Resilience

A regulated dog isn’t one that never gets aroused—it’s one that can return to functional arousal after.

That return to functional arousal?

That’s resilience.

🧠 What Is Resilience?

Resilience is the nervous system’s capacity to shift flexibly between states—mobilisation, social engagement, rest—without getting stuck in one.

High resilience = Emotional adaptability, bounce-back, behavioural range
Low resilience = Slow recovery, chronic tension, narrow tolerance

Resilience isn’t just “toughness.” It’s about physiological flexibility. And it’s shaped by:

Genetics and early development
Emotional safety and co-regulation
Nutrition and sleep
Chronic stress or trauma history

💤 Recovery Behaviours Are Active, Not Passive

When we talk about “recovery,” it’s easy to imagine stillness, lying down, or doing nothing. But recovery is often active. Dogs may sniff, chew, lick, shake off, or disengage—all as part of neurological rebalancing.

Recent research shows that chewing for 15 minutes after a learning session significantly improved memory consolidation and reduced physiological stress markers in dogs. This suggests that the right kind of post-session activity may not just calm arousal—but help embed learning (Moesta et al., 2025).

“Calm” doesn’t always mean still. Sometimes, it means doing something rhythmic, soothing, and biologically regulating.

⏳ Latency: Why Recovery Takes Time

Just because a dog stops barking doesn’t mean they’re okay.

Arousal leaves a trace:

Cortisol lingers in the bloodstream
Emotions echo through interoceptive feedback
Triggers can stack before they’re processed

That pause—where the dog appears “calm” but isn’t back in their body yet? That’s latency.

Don’t rush the reset. Let them land.

(Beerda et al., 1997)

😶 Tonic Immobility: When Arousal Shuts the Body Down

Tonic immobility (TI) is a last-resort defence response seen in prey animals—but also documented in dogs through behaviour casework and trauma-informed care.

It’s not “playing dead.” It’s reflexive motor inhibition triggered when flight, fight, or fawn are no longer viable.

⚙️ What Happens in the Brain?

TI is part of the defence cascade (Fanselow, 1994; Kozlowska et al., 2015):

Social engagement (safe)
Fight/flight (mobilised)
Freeze (motor inhibition + alert)
Tonic immobility (motor inhibition + suppressed alert)
Collapse/dissociation

This involves:

Periaqueductal grey (PAG) activation
Dorsal vagal surge (parasympathetic dominance)
Inhibited cortical motor output
Reduced responsiveness and alertness
Lowered heart rate and breathing

🐶 What This Looks Like in Dogs

Dogs may enter TI when:

Restrained during vet procedures or grooming
Cornered with no escape
Punished or pressured repeatedly
Overwhelmed in environments they can’t process

They often present as:

Completely still
Shallow breathing
Glassy or frozen eyes
Non-responsive to normal cues
Holding breath or going rigid

It’s easily mistaken for “calm” compliance—but it’s not safety. It’s biological shut-down.

⚠️ The Reboot: Why Still Dogs May React

When the nervous system detects an opportunity for escape, it reboots—and the dog may suddenly:

Lunge
Vocalise
Bite
Flee
Appear “possessed” by a delayed response

This isn’t “aggression out of nowhere.” It’s a return to movement—after being trapped in immobility.

(Kozlowska et al., 2015)

❗ Learned Helplessness: Not the Same as TI

Let’s also clear up a common mix-up.

Tonic immobility ≠ learned helplessness.

Learned helplessness occurs when an animal learns, over time, that no response changes the outcome. It’s a conditioned shutdown, often after repeated exposure to inescapable stress.

It’s rare—but serious.

Dogs in learned helplessness may appear:

Submissive or disengaged
Flat and non-reactive
Reluctant to explore or try
"Easy" or "shut down" in training

Unlike TI, which is short-term and reflexive, learned helplessness is chronic and learned. It requires careful rehabilitation—not just new training techniques.

(Seligman, 1972; Maier & Seligman, 2016)

💤 Resilience Needs Sleep

Resilience can’t exist without rest.

Dogs need:

Puppies: 18–20 hours of rest per day
Adolescents: 16–18 hours
Adults: 14–16 hours

Yet in many homes, dogs are chronically under-slept. Noise, light, stimulation, activity, and interrupted routines all impact their ability to reset the nervous system.

🛏️ Tired Dogs React Faster and Learn Less

Sleep-deprived dogs:

Struggle with focus
Are more impulsive
Have lower emotional tolerance
Look hyperactive—but aren’t

A “zoomy” dog might not need more stimulation. They might need a nap.

Zanghi et al. (2013); Overall (2013)

🤝 Co-Regulation: The Human Factor

Dogs don’t just read cues. They read us.

They notice:

Muscle tension
Breathing
Facial expressions
Tone of voice
Movement patterns
Emotional consistency

And they don’t just notice—they respond. This is co-regulation.

🧠 What Is Co-Regulation?

Co-regulation is when one nervous system stabilises or shifts another—through proximity, energy, and shared signals.

According to Polyvagal Theory, dogs in a safe social context can borrow regulation from others—especially those they trust.

Calm, grounded handlers = dogs who recover faster
Anxious, reactive handlers = dogs who escalate faster

You don’t need to be perfect. But you do need to be aware.

❤️ What This Looks Like in Real Life

You pause and breathe—your dog exhales too
You soften your posture—they shift closer
You enter the space with tension—they go stiff
You drop the leash with confidence—they pause, then follow

Regulation is contagious—so is dysregulation.

It’s not about emotional suppression. It’s about presence. When we learn to notice and regulate our own arousal, we become a safe space for theirs.

🚫 Why Positive Arousal Can’t Cancel Stress

There’s a common myth that “adding fun” can override fear or frustration.

But here’s the problem:

All arousal—positive or negative—goes into the same nervous system bucket.

You can’t “cancel” panic with play. You can’t outrun frustration with fetch. You can’t distract from stress by increasing stimulation.

A stressed dog needs space, support, and recovery time—not just an extra squeaky toy.

Play, food, and movement have value—but only when the emotional platform is safe enough to support them.

Otherwise, you’re just piling energy onto energy.

🌀 Shake-Offs, Zoomies, and the Return to Regulation

Some behaviours don’t mean what we think they mean. But they matter.

💦 Shake-Offs

You cue a sit. Nothing. You wait. The dog shakes off—then does it.

Sound familiar?

Shake-offs are a reset signal. They often indicate:

Arousal dropping
Cognitive reset
The nervous system “coming back online”

Dogs may also shake off after:

Group play
A tense greeting
Pressure release (like removing a lead or harness)
A moment of social uncertainty

It’s often the prelude to re-engagement.

💨 FRAPs (Zoomies)

FRAP = Frenetic Random Activity Period

Zoomies aren’t “naughty” or attention-seeking. They can be:

Arousal discharge
Stress recovery
Conflict resolution
Emotional overflow

Dogs FRAP after baths, training, reunions, confusion, or stress. It’s a release valve.

Sometimes we just need to move.

👀 What Other Recovery Looks Like

A big yawn after a challenging task
A sudden flop and nap after training
Stretching before re-engagement
Self-directed sniffing to reduce visual or auditory overwhelm
Returning to handler after scanning or scanning the environment

These aren’t distractions. They’re regulation strategies. Support them.

🧠 Bringing It All Together

Arousal isn’t just a training problem—it’s the heartbeat of behaviour.

It flows through emotion, learning, perception, memory, and movement. It colours how dogs feel the world, how they react to it, and how they recover from it.

Some dogs show arousal loudly—others hide it. Some bounce up and down like a yo-yo—others spiral in quietly.

Neither is wrong. But both deserve to be understood.

We stop asking, “Why is he doing this?” And start asking, “How is he feeling?” Or more gently, “How is this for you?”

This isn’t about fixing dogs. It’s about seeing them more clearly—and supporting their nervous systems, not just their obedience.

No guilt. No blame. Just curiosity, compassion, and better questions.

📚 References by Section

🔹 What Is Arousal, Really?

Porges, S. W. (2007). The polyvagal perspective. Biological Psychology, 74(2), 116–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2006.06.009 🧠 Introduces Polyvagal Theory—explains how safety, mobilisation, and shutdown states shape arousal.

🔹 Arousal Isn’t Linear & the CARAT Model

Clothier, S. (2016). CARAT (Clothier Animal Response Assessment Tool). https://suzanneclothier.com 📘 Describes how arousal can be high in stillness or movement, using a scale from -4 to +4.

🔹 The Neuroscience of Arousal

Fanselow, M. S. (1994). Neural organization of the defensive behavior system responsible for fear. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 1(4), 429–438. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03210947 🔬 Explores how defensive responses (fight, flight, freeze) are organised in the brain.
Porges, S. W. (2007). (As above)

🔹 Emotional Systems Driving Arousal

Panksepp, J. (1998). Affective Neuroscience: The Foundations of Human and Animal Emotions. Oxford University Press. https://global.oup.com/academic/product/affective-neuroscience-9780195096732 📚 Identifies the core mammalian emotional systems and how they motivate behaviour and arousal.

🔹 Sensory Processing & Interoception

Cussen, V. A., & Mench, J. A. (2022). The importance of affective states in the assessment of animal welfare. Animal Behaviour, 184, 183–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2021.12.015 🔍 Highlights the role of interoception in how animals experience emotion.
Moesta, M., Kappel, S., Beetz, A., & Wedl, M. (2025).Post-learning experience matters: Chewing after learning improves memory consolidation in dogs.Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 286, 106617.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2025.106617 🦴 Shows that chewing after training significantly improves learning retention and supports nervous system recovery—validating chewing as an arousal-regulation tool.

🔹 Breed Differences in Arousal

Chapagain, D., et al. (2017). Aging of attentiveness in Border Collies and other pet dog breeds. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 9, 100. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2017.00100 🐾 Looks at cognitive and arousal differences across breeds and the benefits of training.
Wan, M., Bolger, N., & Champagne, F. A. (2012). Human perception of fear in dogs varies according to experience with dogs. PLOS ONE, 7(12), e51775. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0051775 📊 Discusses how humans interpret canine body language, including arousal misreads.
Mikkola, S., Salonen, M., & Hakanen, E. (2025).
Genetic parameters of personality traits in dogs based on a dog personality questionnaire.
Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 286, 106603.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2025.106603
🧬 Identifies heritable personality traits in dogs—such as boldness, sociability, and fearfulness—informing how arousal and regulation strategies must be breed- and individual-specific.

🔹 Arousal and Learning

Yerkes, R. M., & Dodson, J. D. (1908). The relation of strength of stimulus to rapidity of habit formation. Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology, 18(5), 459–482. https://doi.org/10.1002/cne.920180503 📈 Classic study that shows optimal learning occurs at moderate levels of arousal.
Friedman, S. G. (2009). What’s wrong with this picture? Effectiveness is not enough. Good Bird Magazine. https://www.behaviorworks.org/files/articles/Effectiveness%20Is%20Not%20Enough.pdf 🔄 Encourages humane, choice-based training that respects emotional states.

🔹 Fine Motor Skills and Arousal

Haverbeke, A., et al. (2008). Training methods of military dog handlers and their effects on the team's performance. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 113(1–3), 110–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2007.10.009 🧠 Highlights how high arousal impairs precision and coordination.

🔹 Adolescent Neurodevelopment and Behavioural Disruption

Bryce, C. A., & Szabó, D. (2023). Adolescent brain development and behaviour in domestic dogs. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 10, 1185743. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2023.1185743 🧠 Describes adolescent brain changes and how they influence behaviour.
Chamchoi, W., et al. (2020). Brain myelination in dogs: MRI studies of age-related changes and implications for behavior. Veterinary Radiology & Ultrasound, 61(2), 150–159. https://doi.org/10.1111/vru.12831 📊 Discusses how myelination lag impacts impulse control and behaviour during adolescence.
McCutcheon, L. J., & Mills, D. S. (2019). The role of learning in canine development. Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 30, 23–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2018.12.003 📘 Offers developmental context for training and behaviour shaping.
Blakemore, S.-J., & Robbins, T. W. (2012). Decision-making in the adolescent brain. Nature Neuroscience, 15(9), 1184–1191. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.3177 🧬 Cross-species look at adolescent impulsivity and risk-taking.
Westgarth, C., et al. (2020). Adolescence in dogs: behaviour and the relationship between dogs and their owners. Biology Letters, 16(5), 20200097. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2020.0097 📉 Notes temporary declines in responsiveness and attachment in adolescent dogs.
Spear, L. P. (2000). The adolescent brain and age-related behavioral manifestations. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 24(4), 417–463. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0149-7634(00)00014-2 🔬 Foundational work on adolescent neurology and behavioural unpredictability.
Johnston, R. E., & Sachser, N. (2001). Neuroendocrine regulation of social behaviour in rodents. Hormones and Behavior, 40(2), 129–137. https://doi.org/10.1006/hbeh.2001.1673 📖 Offers comparative insights into hormone-behaviour interactions during adolescence.

🔹 Tonic Immobility and the Defence Cascade

Gallup, G. G. Jr. (1977). Tonic immobility: The role of fear and predation. The Psychological Record, 27, 41–61. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1978-25676-001 📚 Classic study on tonic immobility as an evolved defence.
Marx, B. P., et al. (2008). Tonic immobility as an evolved response to extreme fear. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 15(1), 74–90. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2850.2008.00112.x 🧠 Ties tonic immobility to trauma and reboot responses.
Kozlowska, K., et al. (2015). Fear and the defence cascade: Clinical implications and management. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 23(4), 263–287. https://doi.org/10.1097/HRP.0000000000000065 ⚠️ Explains freeze, TI, and collapse in clinical trauma models.

🔹 Learned Helplessness

Seligman, M. E. P. (1972). Learned helplessness. Annual Review of Medicine, 23(1), 407–412. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.me.23.020172.002203 🔄 Introduces the concept of learned helplessness through behavioural experiments.
Maier, S. F., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2016). Learned helplessness at fifty: Insights from neuroscience. Psychological Review, 123(4), 349–367. https://doi.org/10.1037/rev0000033 🧬 Reframes learned helplessness with updated neuroscience.

🔹 Resilience, Sleep, and Recovery

Beerda, B., et al. (1997). Behavioural, saliva cortisol and heart rate responses to different types of stimuli in dogs. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 58(3–4), 365–381. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1591(97)00054-7 ⏳ Shows how long stress hormones remain elevated post-stimulus.
Zanghi, B. M., et al. (2013). Daytime sleep patterns and effects of age, gender, and housing in dogs. Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 8(5), 195–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2013.04.070 💤 Confirms adult dogs need 12–14+ hours of rest and that sleep deficits increase reactivity.
Overall, K. L. (2013). Manual of Clinical Behavioral Medicine for Dogs and Cats. Elsevier Health Sciences. 📘 Explores the behavioural consequences of sleep deprivation and chronic stress.
Landsberg, G. M., et al. (2012). Behavior Problems of the Dog and Cat (3rd ed.). Saunders Elsevier. 📚 Discusses the link between rest quality, emotional recovery, and behavioural health.

🔹 Co-Regulation and Social Buffering

Hennessy, M. B., et al. (2009). Social buffering of the stress response. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 30(4), 470–482. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yfrne.2009.06.001 ❤️ Describes how the presence of trusted social partners can reduce stress responses.